歐洲大部份地區降雨頻繁並不需要複雜的水資源管理技術.
中世紀阿尔卑斯山脉以北最大的城市倫敦只有
3.5萬人，而西班牙的摩尓人在科尔多瓦通过灌溉农业养育了上百萬人口 155頁,
全球水危機 : 節約用水從我做起 = When the rivers run dry / [英]弗雷德.皮爾斯著 ;
張新明譯.北京智識產權出版社 2010 今日倫敦市民喝的泰晤士河水其實已完成多次(傳說是7至10次,
註一)飲用和排放的循環了195頁.
總结經過大殖民時代的經驗,發展中國家(印度,非洲)傳統集雨智慧和技術比歐洲水利文明修建的大型調水工程更有效,中東地區人仕更無視西方工程規範,沿用着自己過去收集雨水的方法
223頁
現時倫敦每天缺水12.5萬公噸.
現時倫敦每天缺水12.5萬公噸.
註一 : http://www.standard.co.uk/news/london/drinking-treated-sewage-could-be-the-answer-to-the-capitals-water-shortage-says-thames-water-8608672.html
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在中世紀,埃及烹飪獲得了最高聲譽 220頁 烹飪,菜餚與階級(Cooking, cuisine and class : a study in comparative sociology / 傑克.古迪(Jack Goody, died on 16 July 2015, aged 95)著 ; 王榮欣, 沈南山譯. 2012 廣場出版
從8世纪起，美味精緻的阿拉伯-安達鲁西亞al-Andalus菜餚極受歐洲好評，既是鹹甜味混雜菜式的冠軍，也是老饕的最愛 65頁 甜點的歷史 = La tres belle et tres exquise histoire des gateaux et des friandises / 瑪格洛娜.圖桑-撒瑪(Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat)著 ; 譚鍾瑜譯 台北市 博雅書屋有限公司 2011
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Jean-Louis Flandrin (1931 - 2001) 認為中世紀英國的烹飪受到阿拉伯菜的影響比法國菜更深 149頁,飲食與愛情 : 東方與西方的文化史 = Food and love : a cultural history of East and West / 傑克.顧迪(Jack Goody)著 ; 楊惠君譯. 台北 聯經, 2004
There is general agreement that the Arabs introduced into Europe a number of tropical plants - including rice (博主註一), sorghum, sugarcane, spinach, eggplant, watermelon, apricot, lemon and bitter orange. Until the sixteenth century most spices were imported by way of Muslim countries. Saffron, however, did enter Europe through Spain p221 Food: A Culinary History, ed by Jean-Louis Flandrin & Massimo Montanari, ch.17 “Arab Cuisine and Its Contribution to European Culture” by Bernard Rosenberger
博主註一：早於普拉蒂納 (Bartolomeo Platina, 1421-1481)的年代，欧洲已經在使用安達鲁西亞的米做了十多款炸糕 beignet 了。米是由摩爾人或葡萄牙人或倫巴底人運入欧洲的，它的氣候只能進口米。 普拉蒂納 Platina 在1465年出版的正當的享樂 De honesta voluptate 一書中用拉丁文收録了苦炸糕，脹氣炸糕，米炸糕，蘋果炸糕，凝乳炸糕，杏仁炸糕，無花果炸糕，蛋白炸糕 ，鼠尾草炸糕，月桂葉炸糕 ，接骨木花炸糕 ...... 136頁甜點的歷史 = La tres belle et tres exquise histoire des gateaux et des friandises / 瑪格洛娜.圖桑-撒瑪(Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat)著 ; 譚鍾瑜譯 台北市 博雅書屋有限公司 2011
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中古世紀晚期西方烹飪書中的名菜往往顯露出穆斯林的影響,菜式中有明顯的穆斯林特色,或是採用了顯然是阿拉伯的材料,190頁 食物的歷史 : 透視人類的飲食與文明 = Food : a history / 菲立普.費南德茲-阿梅斯托著 ; 韓良憶譯, 新店 左岸文化, 2005 直至非常晩近,西歐都依照阿拉伯飲食的規則,而它們是從希臘醫生那裏継承來的 225頁, 烹飪,菜餚與階級(Cooking, cuisine and class : a study in comparative sociology / 傑克.古迪(Jack Goody, died on 16 July 2015, aged 95)著 ; 王榮欣, 沈南山譯. 2012 廣場出版
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Just as Spain had learned of marzipan 杏仁蛋白糊 and nougat 牛軋糖 from the Arabs, so India discovered the delights of sugar candy. Predominantly Muslim cities like Dacca 達卡and Lucknow 北方邦勒克瑙县became, and have remained, the great sweetmeat 糖果；蜜餞 centres of the sub-continent p272, Tannahill, Reay, Food in History, New York: Three Rivers Press, 1988
法國西南部的牛軋糖由西班牙的摩爾人傳来 165頁. 所有伊斯蘭教軍隊經過的土地都可見到用摺疊千層酥皮麵團 lasagne 製成的糕點，可以在欧洲稱為遊遍天涯了，英格蘭人稱之為 puff pastry 153， 229, 303頁 甜點的歷史 = La tres belle et tres exquise histoire des gateaux et des friandises / 瑪格洛娜.圖桑-撒瑪(Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat)著 ; 譚鍾瑜譯 台北市 博雅書屋有限公司 2011
與法國關係深遠的馬格里布北非三國:摩洛哥,阿爾及利亞和突尼斯,自古以來,此地的菜餚一直因其甜味特徵而受到重視,更是歐洲大部份菜餚的母親,而其阿拉伯- 安達魯西亞al-Andalus源頭,則至少有一千年以上.這三個國家的共同聯繫是普遍偏好非常甜且香氣濃烈的食物,毎個地方都選用蜂蜜.地中海沿岸各地-從前和現在都處於阿拉伯影響之下-能烹調出極為多樣化的甜點292-293頁 甜點的歷史
巴利阿里群島 Balearic Islands (包括伊維薩島Ibiza) 至今仍非常喜歡甜鰻魚糕,雖然此道菜餚並不屬於主菜間的甜食或飯後甜點,卻是中世紀菜餚源於阿拉伯 - 加泰隆尼亞 - 安達魯西亞的見證 (参考博文安達魯西亞马拉加甜鰻魚糕 smoked eel terrine(瓦罐) 14.4.2016). 在十四和十五世紀的歐洲宮廷中,加泰隆尼亞廚師的評價甚高. 1324年,有位侍奉英國國王的加泰隆尼亞廚師寫了一本食譜書,名為聖救主之書 Llibre de Sent Soví p.315 甜點的歷史
因此,六百多年來,芙勞(可譯成法文的雞蛋牛奶烘餅flan),一直是伊维薩岛Ibiza上的復活節美食.相當具有現代風味的芙勞,其材料與作法在西班牙最古老的中世紀食譜書中便已有詳細的記載.這種塔tart是真正的美味,特別是趁熱食用時 (参考博文巴利阿里群岛雞蛋牛奶烘餅, 13.4.2016)
至於手環形狀的加泰隆尼亞小甜點羅斯奎利亞 rosquille 可說是西班牙的代表甜點,跨國的大型製餅產業將這種甜點塞滿了法國,西班牙瓦爾省及全歐洲的超級市場陳列架. 在葡萄牙的甜點中,沿海的拜拉省那驚人的雞蛋"七鰓鰻"( 搜索 lampreia de ovos)幾乎與當地的高級葡萄酒一樣遠近馳名.從文化記錄來看,雞蛋"七鰓鰻"可說與古老的科英布拉大學歷史相當 Universidade de Coimbra 1290 年
博主分析:此為仿七鰓鰻甜品,做法見317頁 315-317頁, 甜點的歷史 (参考博文葡萄牙甜點雞蛋"七鰓鰻"與傳統炆七鰓鰻 13.4.2016)
阿拉伯人是水果蜜餞公認的發明者371頁, 甜點的歷史 (candied fruit 裹了糖粉的蜜餞 succade 糖漬水果、蜜餞 crystallized fruit 外表比較晶透的蜜餞類型 conserves 果醬、蜜餞)
加泰隆尼亞人可說是製作奶醬的權威,不論是著名的焦糖布丁,或是放了肉桂和新鮮杏仁的牛奶奶醬.牛奶奶醬是阿拉伯-安達魯西亞菜餚al-Andalus的偉大遺產,是從前的佔領者留給潔隆納省的修女的.(参考博文加泰隆尼亞奶醬, 20.4.2016) 今日,我們尤其不能忘記著名的香料味加泰隆尼亞奶醬,因為國際性的農產食品公司早已把其自有的工業版本奶醬滿滿地塞在超市的貨架上.只有真正的加泰隆尼亞奶醬才含有八角,迄是這是其香氣獨樹一幟的秘密 289頁 甜點的歷史
法國西南部的 pastis 是 Poitiers 之役後摩爾人所遗留下来的 303頁 甜點的歷史
法國西南部的牛軋糖 touron,類似杏仁開心果蛋白糖類小甜點,由西班牙的摩爾人傳来 165頁 甜點的歷史
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地中海的産物和影響力在中世紀已經可以直達英國;英國的船隻到西西里買糖,然後從葡萄牙帶回甜葡萄酒。Jean-Louis Flandrin (1931 - 2001) 認為中世紀英國的烹飪受到阿拉伯菜的影響比法國菜更深149頁 飲食與愛情 : 東方與西方的文化史 = Food and love : a cultural history of East and West / 傑克.顧迪(Jack Goody)著 ; 楊惠君譯. 台北 聯經, 2004.
文藝復興時期在地中海産品的取得上,法國北部和英國並没有太大的差別(不過英國進口糖數量遠勝於前者,根據記載,英國人一半的菜餚裡都放糖)140頁 歐洲的美食文化隨着文藝復興而復活。在16世纪中葉的義大利，往往為高階级人士凖備極大量昂貴的食物。英國16及17世紀初在飲食和娯樂上的花費也把國家給吃窮了134頁 飲食與愛情 : 東方與西方的文化史
博主分析: 1704 西班牙直布羅陀Gibraltar即淪為英國殖民地至今, 反映出兩國關係之密切, 比 1707 蘇格蘭聯盟英格蘭更早。
西西里也許是喜好美食的義大利最講究美食的省份,亦曾是整個義大利半島的美食之源,曾被穆斯林和當時统治英國的諾曼地人统治過，與其他義大利人不同,西西里人對甜點的態度積極熱情,為數不少的甜食是薩拉森穆斯林佔領時期的遺產 ...要把義大利的甜點講完必須出一本專書才成 330 - 332頁 甜點的歷史 = La tres belle et tres exquise histoire des gateaux et des friandises / 瑪格洛娜.圖桑-撒瑪(Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat)著 ; 譚鍾瑜譯 台北市 博雅書屋有限公司 2011
科西嘉人素来是法國復活節糕點的冠軍 268頁 甜點的歷史
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Llibre de Sent Soví 聖救主之書 (侍奉英國國王的加泰隆尼亞廚師寫的中世紀歐洲食譜 博主註二)
The Llibre de Sent Soví (1324) is a réceptaire the medieval kitchen written in language Catalan by an anonymous author.There are two original copies manuscripts, which are kept at the University of Valencia ( manuscript n o 216 of the general library and history of the University of Valencia ) and the University Library in Barcelona . It was published for the first time in1952 by the General and scholar Lluís Faraudo Saint-Germain 2 , which published many other medieval texts. Others commented editions were performed thereafter. This text is a fundamental historical source for research on the history of food in Europe medieval , and in particular on the origins of Catalan cuisine . Source: Wikipedia
博主註二：修道院讓西元五百年以降遭蠻族侵害的西方文明得以倖存 147頁 甜點的歷史
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以下摘自: Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, Near a thousand tables : a history of food, New York, The Free Press, 2004
Indeed, courtly eating styles in the West have always been imitated from other cultures. In classical antiquity, upper-class foodways were denounced by Horace as “Persian” and by a Greek proverb as “Sicilian.” When what Gibbon called “the triumph of barbarism and religion” interrupted the continuity of Western civilization, memories of Greek and Roman cuisine grew dim. Western courts looked to Islam for culinary inspiration. This is odd, on the face of it, Christendom and Islam were rival civilizations, formally at war, locked in mutual hatred. Crusading propaganda depicted Muslims as demons. In Islam, Christians were seen as vice personified. Yet at a high level of culture the world of Islam commanded admiration and imitation. In the tenth century, when Gerbert of Aurillac - an emperor’s tutor and a future pope - wanted to learn mathematics, he went to Muslim Spain. The same route was followed by would-be practitioners of magic, seekers of the latest medical wisdom and collectors of ancient texts. Thanks to scholars working in Syriac and Arabic since the fall of the Roman Empire, a formidable corpus of manuscripts unknown in the West, including fundamental texts of Aristotle and Ptolemy, was preserved in libraries in lands under Muslim rule. As general Islamic superiority in science and medicine was then beyond cavil吹毛求疵,so, too, the specific advantage in what might be classed as “food sciences,” such as agriculture and practical gardening. For cooking is a kind of alchemy, which transmutes base ingredients into luxuries. And the medicine of the period was, in great measure, a science of diet. Specific prophylactics預防療法 were few but nourishment was known to conduce to health; the distinction between medicine and good food was inexact and the medicinal properties of foodstuffs were diligently monitored, recorded and reflected in kitchen practice. Science, magic and cookery blended into one another with no formally distinguished limits. Frederick II...Peter the Cruel of Castile...These royal Islamophiles 向往穆師林文化者were extreme but not altogether unrepresentative cases of elite values in high - medieval Christendom; there was a strong tendency to cannibalize 拆取 Muslim wisdom and defer 推遲或服從 to Muslim taste (博主註三). The culinary arts of Muslim courts became the fodder (dried hay or feed, for cattle) of Western recipe books when these began to appear on a significant scale in the thirteenth century.The West absorbed influences in three main areas: the aesthetics of the table, an accent on certain traditional exotic ingredients and a bias toward rich, sweet flavors. The aesthetics of food in Muslin courts resembled the aesthetics of the sacred arts in the West - a bias toward goldsmithy and jewelwork, which it was the aim of the best cooks to echo. They used saffron for gilding 鍍金, sugar like diamonds and meat sliced alternately in white and dark “like gold and silver coin,” according to the tenth-century text known as The Baghdad Cook. They made dishes to imitate carnelians 紅玉髓 and pearls. Just as sacred spaces and altars were heavily censed in Christendom, so royal banqueting halls and tables in Islam were perfumed with heavy aromas. Sweet flavors and scented ingredients were the most esteemed. Milk of almonds, ground almonds, rose water and extracts of other perfumed flowers, sugar and all the spices of the East - to which the Islamic world had privileged access by comparison with Christendom - became essential ingredients. ...Dishes prominent in late-medieval Western cookery books regularly betray Muslim influence by these unmistakable signs, or by the inclusion of telltale ingredients, such as pomegranate seeds, raisin paste or sumac漆樹 berries sweetened with almonds. p.119-121 Felipe Fernandez-Armesto, Near a thousandtables : a history of food, New York, The Free Press, 2004 中譯本: 食物的歷史 = Food : a history / [美]菲利普.費爾南德斯.阿莫斯圖著 ; 何舒平譯,北京 中信 2005
博主註三: 這就是Norman Daniel 之 cultural filter, 指技術上學習模彷是首要任務,文化分歧則放第二位,慢慢考慮如何處理, 可以是推遲, 可以是服從
Daniel, Norman, Cultural Barrier, 文化屏障 / 諾曼。丹尼爾著 ; 王奮宇 ... [等]譯,杭州 : 浙江人民, 1992
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The aristocracy of Europe despised the use of vegetables and ate a mainly meat diet. Consequently, they suffered widely from gout 痛風. The arrival of sweets, jams and preserves created another problem: constipation 便秘, through neglect of the recommendations of Muslim physicians. Thus, we learn from the chronicles of the Pope in Avignon in the 14th century, that boats from Beirut brought jams, preserves, rice and special flour for cake-making, plus compensatory 補充的 laxatives!瀉藥 Source: http://muslimheritage.com/article/influence-islamic-culinary-art-europe
1585年大批可可豆從 Veracruz 運到西班牙，儘管價格高昂，卻销售得非常之快。從英格蘭開始，巧克力風潮在整個十八世紀遍及全歐，但德國仍長期将之視為藥品 90頁 （普鲁士對於安地列斯群岛的蔗糖和奴隸販賣没有任何的興趣 73頁） 甜點的歷史 = La tres belle et tres exquise histoire des gateaux et des friandises / 瑪格洛娜.圖桑-撒瑪(Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat)著 ; 譚鍾瑜譯 台北市 博雅書屋有限公司 2011
哈布斯堡大公1581年引進安達鲁西亞骏馬给南奥地利Styrie,其後皇帝查爾斯四世 1730 年創立维也納西班牙馬術學校 302頁 甜點的歷史 (The Royal Andalusian School of Equestrian Art is a riding school comparable to the Spanish Riding School in Vienna, Austria. Source: Wikipedia)
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布羅代爾提出一個更廣泛的主張,即在十五世纪以前,歐洲沒有複雜的烹飪法.確實,他把精緻的烹飪法局限在五世紀的中國人以及十一,十二世紀的回教徒,在西方只局限於義大利人的成就,十六世紀以降,法國延續了此傳统(230頁), 而法國菜餚是建立在牢固的義大利基礎上 (284頁,烹飪,菜餚與階級(Cooking, cuisine and class : a study in comparative sociology / 傑克.古迪(Jack Goody)著; 王榮欣, 沈南山譯. 2012 廣場出版)
参考: Adamson, Melitta Weiss, ed. (2002) Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays, Chapter 4: Medieval Britain, Routledge; Reprint edition (June 4, 2012)
Spencer, Colin, British food : an extraordinary thousand years of history , London : Grub Street, 2002.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_cuisine
http://muslimheritage.com/article/influence-islamic-culinary-art-europe
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